CH02: MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE

The Middle Ages, spanning from the 5th to the 15th century, occupies a pivotal position in European history, signifying the transition from the decline of the Western Roman Empire to the advent of the Renaissance and the Great Discoveries. Positioned between Antiquity and modern times, this era is meticulously divided into the High Middle Ages (6th - 10th century), central Middle Ages (11th - 13th century), and late Middle Ages (14th – 15th century).

Commencing in 476 with the deposition of the last Western Roman emperor, the Middle Ages' conclusion is conventionally marked at the end of the 15th century, yet contextual variations exist, such as the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Christopher Columbus's inaugural voyage in 1492, or the start of the Protestant Reformation in 1517. Despite these symbolic dates, contemporary historiography posits the Renaissance, spanning from the 15th to the mid-16th century, as the true bridge from the Middle Ages to modern times.

The Western Middle Ages, extending from 476 to 1492, covers a span of one thousand and sixteen years, with the Renaissance acting as a transitional phase. Despite being often labeled as the Dark Age, this period witnessed the preservation and enrichment of Greek sciences through Arabic translations, particularly during the Arab-Muslim civilization's golden age.

The Middle Ages, marked by theological dominance and a relative stagnation of sciences, saw rare individuals making strides in biology, including figures like Averroes, Michael Scot, and Abu Muhammad Ibn al-Baitar. The Renaissance, occurring at the Middle Ages' closure, ushered in transformative innovations in navigation, cartography, and medicine, fostering a renewed interest in various scientific disciplines.

Advancements in the Renaissance, ranging from the invention of the printing press to astronomical discoveries and the evolution from alchemy to modern chemistry, signify a profound shift in the scientific landscape. The dissemination of knowledge improved, allowing for mass education and the formation of a scientific community, creating a bridge between distinct disciplines united by scientificity and mathematics.

As the Renaissance unfolded from 1450 to 1600, it marked a period of rebirth and transition, witnessing the popularization of innovations like the compass and sextant, developments in cartography, and the emergence of figures such as Christopher Columbus, Leonardo da Vinci, and Galileo. This era not only reshaped Europe's geographical and cultural identity but also laid the foundation for the autonomy of science and the development of its first theoretical systems. In this chapter, we will provide full detail on what was mentioned in the introduction, and our focus will be on the Middle Ages and the Renaissance eras.