Educational Psychology [2024-2025]
مخطط الموضوع
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Faculty of Letters and Languges
القسم: Department of Letters and English Language
المقياس: Educational Psychology
المستوى الدراسي : Master's II in Civilization and Literature
اسم ولقب الأستاذ: Dr. Mohammed Djemoui SABER
البريد الإلكتروني: E-MAIL: mohammeddjemoui.saber@univ-msila.dz
السنة الجامعية: 2024 – 2025
Module: Educational Psychology
Target Audience: Students enrolled in Master's II Programme in Civilization and Literature at Mohamed Boudiaf University in M'sila.
Teacher: Dr. Mohammed Djemoui SABER
E-Mail: mohammeddjemoui.saber@univ-msila.dz
Academic Year: (2024-2025)
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منتدى
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Educational Psychology applies psychological theories to understand how students acquire knowledge and skills, how they develop intellectually and socially, and how educators can use this knowledge to enhance teaching and learning practices.
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At the end of the course, students are expected to
Understand the field of Educational Psychology and the importance of the psychology to the
development of a student’s self- esteem, motivation, and learning styles.
Compare and contrast the various factors that cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic theorists
believe influence the learning process.
Apply learning theories and models to classroom situations.
Identify and discuss the major components and techniques of classroom planning,
management and instruction and how these components and techniques address individual
differences. -
Chapter I: Introduction to Educational Psychology
· Introduction to Educational Psychology: Definitions, Scope, and Importance
· Historical Perspectives and Foundational Principles
· Research Methods in Educational Psychology
· Applying Educational Psychology in Practice: Implications for Teaching and Learning
Chapter II: Learning Theories and the Learning Process
· Definitions of learning
· Behaviorism: Pavlov, Skinner, and Classical/Operant Conditioning
· Cognitive Theories: Piaget's Constructivism and Information Processing Theory
· Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura's Observational Learning
· Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Learning
· language learning theories
· applications of various theories in the classroom
Chapter III: Theories of Development
· Understanding development
· Processes of development
· Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
· Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
· Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory
· Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory· Applications of developmental psychology theories
Chapter IV: Learners' Diversity
· Understanding Individual Differences: Gender, Intelligence, Learning Styles, and Multiple
Intelligences
· Cultural diversity and individual identity
· Inclusive Education: Addressing Special Educational Needs
Chapter V: Motivation
· Definitions
· Theories of Motivation: Maslow's Hierarchy, Self-Determination Theory, and Achievement Goal
Theory
· Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation: Implications for Learning
· Motivating Factors in Educational Settings: Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness
· Motivational Strategies for Enhancing Learning Engagement
Chapter VI: Participants of the Teaching/Learning Process
· Components of the learning situation (teacher, learner, subject matter, Materials…)
· Teachers' Roles and Responsibilities: Instructional Strategies and Classroom Management
· Learners types and roles
· Engagement and Active Learning Techniques
· Parental Involvement and Community Resources in Education
· Educational Leaders and their Impact on School Climate and Culture
Chapter VII: Classroom Management and the Learning Environment
· Definitions
· Classroom Climate/space: Rules, Routines, and Expectations
· Managing Student Behavior: Individualized Plans and Classroom Interventions
· Discipline Strategies and Conflict Resolution Techniques
Chapter VIII: The Nature of Classroom Communication
· Definitions and characteristics of classroom communication
· Verbal, Nonverbal and unintended communication in the classroom
· Listening Skills and Feedback Mechanisms
· Teachers and learners talk
· Communication Challenges: Addressing Language Barriers and Cultural Differences
Chapter IX: Assessment of Learning
· Principles of Assessment: Validity, Reliability, and Fairness
· Objectives of assessment
· Roles of assessment
· Formative vs. Summative Assessment: Strategies and Tools
· Alternative Assessment Methods: Performance Tasks, Portfolios, and Rubrics
· Feedback provision principles and techniques -
Chapter I: Introduction to Educational Psychology
· Introduction to Educational Psychology: Definitions, Scope, and Importance
· Historical Perspectives and Foundational Principles
· Research Methods in Educational Psychology
· Applying Educational Psychology in Practice: Implications for Teaching and LearningIntroduction to Educational Psychology: Definitions, Scope, and Importance Educational psychology is the study of how people learn and develop in educational settings. It focuses on understanding the ways students think, learn, and behave in classrooms. The goal is to help teachers improve their teaching methods and create better learning environments. Educational psychology is important because it helps educators understand how to meet the needs of different learners, making education more effective for everyone.
Historical Perspectives and Foundational Principles
Educational psychology has a long history, with early ideas coming from famous thinkers like Jean Piaget, John Dewey, and Lev Vygotsky. These scholars helped us understand how children think, learn through experience, and interact with others. The main ideas that guide educational psychology include behaviorism, which looks at how rewards and punishments affect learning, and constructivism, which focuses on students building knowledge from their experiences.
Research Methods in Educational Psychology
Educational psychologists use different methods to study learning, such as experiments, surveys, and case studies. These methods help them understand how students learn and what teaching strategies work best. The findings from these studies help improve educational practices by providing teachers with information on how to teach more effectively.
Applying Educational Psychology in Practice: Implications for Teaching and Learning
Educational psychology has practical applications in the classroom. Teachers can use this knowledge to create lessons that engage students and meet their individual learning needs. Techniques like differentiation (adjusting teaching to fit different learners) and scaffolding (giving students support until they can do something on their own) are examples of how educational psychology improves teaching. It also helps in designing tests and assessments that accurately measure student learning and growth.
Applying Educational Psychology in Practice: Implications for Teaching and Learning
Educational psychology serves as a vital framework for understanding how students learn and how teachers can facilitate effective learning environments. Applying educational psychology in practice provides insights into cognitive, emotional, and social factors that influence learning, enabling educators to tailor their teaching strategies to meet diverse student needs. As Woolfolk (2016) emphasizes, "the principles of educational psychology provide teachers with a scientific foundation for understanding the teaching and learning process." These principles inform a range of practices, from lesson planning and classroom management to assessment and student motivation, ensuring that teaching methods align with the way students learn best.
One major implication of educational psychology is the application of theories of learning, such as constructivism, behaviorism, and cognitivism, in the classroom. Constructivist approaches, based on the work of Vygotsky (1978), suggest that learning is a socially mediated process in which students construct knowledge through interaction and collaboration. Teachers can implement these ideas by incorporating group projects, discussions, and activities that encourage peer-to-peer learning. Similarly, principles from behaviorism, such as reinforcement and conditioning, can be used to shape desired behaviors. For example, positive reinforcement—like praise or rewards—can motivate students to engage actively in learning activities. As Skinner (1954) highlights, "reinforcement strengthens behavior and increases the likelihood of its recurrence."
Educational psychology also sheds light on how students' cognitive development influences their ability to process and retain information. Piaget's (1952) stages of cognitive development emphasize the importance of aligning instructional methods with students' developmental levels. For instance, younger students in the concrete operational stage benefit from hands-on learning and visual aids, while older students in the formal operational stage can engage in abstract reasoning and critical thinking tasks. By understanding these stages, teachers can design lessons that are developmentally appropriate and cognitively engaging.
Motivation, a central concept in educational psychology, plays a critical role in fostering student engagement and perseverance. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as outlined by Deci and Ryan (1985), guide how students approach learning tasks. Intrinsic motivation, driven by a genuine interest in the subject, can be nurtured by creating meaningful and relevant learning experiences. Extrinsic motivation, fueled by external rewards or recognition, can be effectively balanced to complement intrinsic drives. Teachers can apply these insights by offering autonomy, setting achievable goals, and celebrating student progress to enhance motivation.
Another key area where educational psychology informs practice is in addressing individual differences among students. Gardner’s (1983) theory of multiple intelligences highlights the diverse ways students learn and demonstrate their abilities, suggesting that traditional methods may not resonate with every learner. By incorporating varied instructional techniques—such as visual aids, storytelling, kinesthetic activities, or logical problem-solving—teachers can engage a broader range of students and cater to their unique strengths.
Assessment and feedback, essential components of the teaching and learning process, are also influenced by educational psychology. Formative assessments provide ongoing insights into student understanding and help teachers identify areas requiring further support. Summative assessments, on the other hand, evaluate overall learning at the end of an instructional period. Effective feedback, as Hattie and Timperley (2007) note, is "timely, specific, and actionable," enabling students to understand their progress and take steps to improve. Educational psychology underscores the importance of using assessment as a tool for learning rather than merely a measure of performance.
Generally speaking, the application of educational psychology in teaching and learning enhances the effectiveness of instructional practices by grounding them in evidence-based principles. By integrating theories of learning, understanding cognitive and motivational processes, addressing individual differences, and employing effective assessment strategies, educators can create engaging, inclusive, and supportive learning environments. These practices not only improve student outcomes but also foster a deeper understanding of how learning occurs, contributing to the overall growth and development of both teachers and students.
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Chapter II: Learning Theories and the Learning Process
· Definitions of learning
· Behaviorism: Pavlov, Skinner, and Classical/Operant Conditioning
· Cognitive Theories: Piaget's Constructivism and Information Processing Theory
· Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura's Observational Learning
· Constructivist and Sociocultural Perspectives on Learning
· language learning theoriesDefinitions of Learning
The ability to learn is among the most essential characteristics of humans. Learning frequently happens seamlessly and may be overlooked in numerous cases. It can be understood in different ways.
Slavin (1988) defines learning as a change in an individual that results from experience. Gagne (1985) describes learning as a lasting change in human capability that is not attributable to maturation. According to Cascio (1998) and Bass & Vaughan (1966, p.8), “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior resulting from practice or experience.” Cole and Cole (2001, p.155) add that “learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experiences in the environment.” Similarly, Shuell (1990, p.2) states that “learning is an enduring change in behavior or in the capacity to behave in a certain way, which is brought about by practice or other experiences.” Burns (1995, p.99) expands on this, describing learning as “a relatively permanent change in behavior, including both observable activity and internal processes like thinking, attitudes, and emotions.” Glasersfeld (1987, pp3-16) views learning as constructing meaningful representations and making sense of one’s experiential world.
In reviewing learning and instructional literature, many variations on this theme appear. As Smith (1982, p.34) notes, “Learning is sometimes regarded as a process, sometimes a product, and other times a function.” Philip & Soltis (1985, p.7) further define learning as “the result of environmental actions on the learner.” Learning always involves some form of change and is ultimately the learner's responsibility. It is a lifelong, continuous process that can occur by chance or guidance, consciously or unconsciously, but it consistently leads to personal transformation.
Understanding what people think and how they learn has been the focus of numerous researchers, who have developed a variety of learning theories. These theories are crucial to the advancement of both learning and teaching methods and are also significant in the field of educational technology.
Behaviorism: Pavlov, Skinner, and Classical/Operant Conditioning
Behaviourism, regarded as a theory of learning, has its roots in Aristotle, who in his essay "Memory" discussed the connections formed between occurrences like lightning and thunder. At the core of this framework is the idea that “learning involves modifying behaviour by applying specific stimuli that guide responses in a desired direction through the reinforcement of the behavior produced” (Burns, 1995).
The behaviorist perspective is frequently regarded as the most fundamental and nearly rudimentary type of learning, as it focuses on examining observable and measurable actions. The mind is often considered a "black box" because we can observe responses to stimuli in measurable ways without considering the underlying thought processes. In behaviorism, two key concepts of learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning happens when a natural reflex reacts to a stimulus. Weiten, Lloyd, Dunn, and Hammer (2008) stated that classical conditioning best explains reflexive responses governed by stimuli that come before the reaction. Thus, learning is viewed as a link between a stimulus and its corresponding response. Learning results from the association of responses with stimuli (Hannafin and Peck ,1988). A well-known illustration can be found in Pavlov’s research. While his findings primarily centred on reflexive behavioral changes, classical conditioning is especially linked to human emotional learning, where additional stimuli present at the time of an incident are also connected to our responses. Burns (1995) notes that in classical conditioning, the organism lacks control over the reinforcement process.
Operant conditioning, a concept formulated by B. F. Skinner, occurs when a response to a stimulus receives reinforcement. In other words, operant conditioning involves a type of learning where voluntary actions are influenced by their outcomes. Clegg (2005) explains that it requires the learner to engage in particular behaviors to obtain something desirable or to avoid something negative. Phillip & Soltis (1985) describe it as learning to behave appropriately by receiving praise for good actions and by not receiving praise when we fail to do so.
Operant conditioning is viewed as a straightforward feedback mechanism. This means that if a reinforcement follows a response to a stimulus, the likelihood of that response occurring again in the future increases. Operant conditioning is believed to govern a greater portion of human behaviour compared to classical conditioning because most human responses are not automatic. They are intentional. Since they are intentional, operant responses are considered to be emitted rather than elicited.
Cognitive Theories: Piaget's Constructivism and Information Processing Theory
Many psychologists and field researchers do not fully concur with a behavioral or operant view of learning. They contend that both classical and operant conditioning processes overly reduce the complexity of how organisms, particularly humans, engage with their surroundings. These psychologists assert that cognitive (mental) processes cannot be overlooked when examining learning, which they believe the operant approach tends to do. This alternative emphasis on mental activity is commonly known as the cognitive perspective on learning.
The cognitive interpretations of learning trace back to Greek philosophy but re-emerged in the 17th century through the contributions of British associationist philosophers such as John Locke and David Hume, who are also referred to as British empiricist philosophers. They posited that our experiences throughout life play a crucial role in creating mental associations that shape our identities and beliefs.
Cognitive Beliefs and Assumptions of the Cognitive Perspective
Cognitivism as a learning theory emphasizes that learning is an active endeavor, highlighting the interaction among the learner’s prior knowledge, their surrounding environment, and the problems they are contemplating. Consequently, it prioritizes internal processes over external factors. Ertmer & Newby (1993) describe this theory as examining the human mind as a “black box” that requires exploration to comprehend how individuals learn, understand, think, and react differently to the same stimuli. This means that the focus is on the internal mental processes instead of observable behaviors, and it regards learning as a transformation in a learner’s schemata (cognitive frameworks). Mergel (1998) contends that alterations in a learner's behavior reflect the way they've processed information.
Characteristics of the Cognitive Perspective
As stated by Anderson (1985), the cognitive approach is characterized by the following points:
• Previous cognitivists focused more on insights, whereas contemporary cognitivists prioritize the human mental processes, akin to the functioning of a computer system.
• Learning is perceived as an active and dynamic process.
• Learner perceptions are processed through differentiation, generalization, and restructuring, enabling the learner to respond to the specific cognitive framework to better understand the environment.
• This perspective is particularly effective for concept formation, problem solving, and various advanced mental processes.
This framework views learning as a process, as it explores how our brains handle information—emphasizing the mechanisms involved in solving problems, structuring perceptions in the mind, and cultivating insights. To learn effectively, comprehension is essential, and it is important to focus on how the material to be learned is organized. Anderson (1985) identifies Information Processing Theory as a significant factor in the contemporary evolution of cognitivism. We will now explore the role of this theory within the context of cognitivism.
Educational Implications of Cognitivism
The advocates of this paradigm, as discussed, claim that cognitivism provides significant opportunities to enhance learners’ intelligence and cognitive skills. Consequently, there is ample potential for creativity. In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism views learning as an interactive process that requires active engagement from the learner's mind. Students cannot acquire knowledge solely through rote memorization or repetition; this approach is mechanical and ineffective. Within this framework, teachers must assume the roles of coordinators, facilitators, motivators, counselors, friends, and guides. In contemporary education, teachers often function merely as lecturers, but cognitivism broadens the teacher's responsibilities.
Information Processing Theory
Cognitive psychology emphasizes the significance of information processing theory, which has been employed to analyze cognitive functions. This approach emerged during the 1950s and 1960s, primarily due to the advancement of computer technology, and serves as an alternative to the dominant behaviorist theories that were increasingly viewed as an “oversimplification” (Eysenck, 1998). While behaviorist theories focus on an “observable response as a function of observable stimuli” (Igou, 1999), the information processing perspective delves into the cognitive processes that occur between stimulus and response, as well as the reasons behind specific reactions. Advocates of this framework, such as Ertmer & Newby (1993), argue that the mind operates as a rational information processor, necessitating an understanding of processes like thinking, attention, knowledge, memory, and problem-solving. Proponents of this view utilize computer metaphors: information is input, processed, and results in certain outcomes. Semple (2000) contends that the brain functions like a computer . It takes in information, processes it, and generates an output. A human can be modeled as a basic information processor with the senses (sight, hearing, etc.) acting as receptors that gather signals and send them to the brain (the processing unit with storage). After processing, individuals generate output responses (physical actions, speech, etc.). Evans (1983) characterized the information processing approach as an effort to comprehend the software of a complex computer.
Educational Implications of the Information Processing Theory
The information processing theory (IPT) is effective in enhancing student learning. According to Scruggs & Mastropieri (1992) and Huitt (2000), IPT highlights the significance of capturing students' attention at the start of a lesson, recalling relevant prior knowledge, delivering information in a structured way, increasing the meaningfulness of the content, underscoring key elements of the material to be learned, reducing distracting information, assisting students in chunking or grouping related information, offering chances for students to elaborate on new knowledge through active participation, guiding students in using mnemonic devices, and allowing opportunities for spaced practice or rehearsal.
Constructivist Approaches to Learning
A recent term popular among educators is a combination of concepts from philosophy, sociology, psychology, and education. It was early psychological theories that influenced the development of constructivism, which can be linked to Bruner's instructional framework (Bruner, 1967; 1994). This framework is grounded in cognitive research and suggests that learning is an active endeavor where individuals build new ideas and concepts based on both their previous and current knowledge (Kearsely 1994b).
Principles of Constructivism
Constructivism, as a learning theory, is based on the idea that individuals form their own understanding of the world by reflecting on their experiences. Learning can be defined as a transformation in the significance derived from experiences (Baruque & Melo 2004). In constructivist theory, learning occurs when a learner actively develops new concepts. These concepts emerge through intricate interactions involving prior knowledge, the challenge to be addressed, and the setting in which it takes place. This enables learners to progress beyond merely receiving information and leads to the independent discovery of knowledge. This theory has also been referred to as a Meta theory due to its overlap with and influence on various other theories (Phillip & Soltis, 1985). Constructivism has occasionally been described as an application of cognitivism or the secondary form of cognitivism (Bednar et al, 1992; Wilson, 1999) because the transition from behaviorism to cognitivism was not fully realized, leaving learning behavior as a central concern. According to Jonassen (1991), this transition was not thorough due to inconsistent acceptance of cognitivism. There was a requirement for a mentalistic viewpoint, the application of cognitive instructional sciences, a more comprehensive approach to instructional design, and a less reductionist analytical method.
Cognitive Constructivism
Cognitive constructivism, which emphasizes the internal process of meaning-making within individuals, has its roots in Piaget’s investigation into the cognitive development of children. The aim of Piaget’s work in developmental psychology and genetic epistemology was to comprehend the process by which knowledge is developed. He believed that the ways in which children think and reason are distinct from adults (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969).
Piaget’s cognitive development theory reinterprets the concepts of intelligence and knowledge, as well as the connection between individuals and their surroundings. Intelligence is viewed as an ongoing process that forms structures. As a child engages continuously with their environment, they rely on intelligence. Likewise, knowledge is an ever-evolving interactive journey between the child and their environment. Initially, this knowledge is highly subjective in infancy and childhood but becomes increasingly objective by early adulthood.
"Everywhere we find the idea that the life of the mind is a dynamic reality; intelligence, a real constructive activity; will and personality, continuous and irreducible kinds of creativity"(Piaget 1935, p.146)
According to Piaget (Inhelder & Piaget, 1958), learning is a personal and unique journey, marked by the process of individuals building and enhancing their knowledge and understanding through the creation and refinement of concepts.
Piaget’s Learning Processes
Piaget asserts that learning is influenced by several processes: assimilation, accommodation, adaptation, and equilibration.
Assimilation involves the process of utilizing or altering the environment so that it can fit into established cognitive structures. This process is not entirely objective; it has a subjective aspect since we often adjust experiences or information slightly to align with our prior beliefs. Therefore, assimilation explains how children can interact with and comprehend new concepts in relation to what they already know. Assimilation is succeeded by accommodation.
Accommodation refers to the process of altering or merging current cognitive structures to incorporate new information from the environment. This involves modifying existing schemata or creating new ones, a process referred to as accommodation. During this phase, the child actively engages, investigates, questions, and experiments.
Equilibration, in the context of cognitive development, is the ongoing self-regulatory process that allows an individual to grow, develop, and change while preserving stability. It represents the balance between assimilation and accommodation. Equilibration elucidates how children transition from one cognitive stage to another. In the absence of equilibration, cognitive development would lack coherence and continuity, instead becoming chaotic and fragmented.
Adaptation aids in integrating new experiences into existing schemata, while accommodation contributes to the combination, expansion, or alteration of new schemata based on the person’s recent experiences. Consequently, individuals are supported in adjusting to their new surroundings. This adjustment process is referred to as adaptation, and it continues throughout one’s life.
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Lecturer: Dr. Mohammed Djemoui SABER
E-mail Address: mohammeddjemoui.saber@univ-msila.dz